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Introduction
Ladies and gentlemen,
Crypto assets have been a significant topic of discussion, especially since Donald Trump’s campaign as the «crypto president.» However, my interest in this topic predates that period. In my previous role at the World Bank, which included oversight of El Salvador during President Nayib Bukele’s inauguration, I closely followed El Salvador’s decision to adopt Bitcoin as legal tender in 2021.
Fast forward to 2024, El Salvador made the decision to abolish the requirement for merchants to accept Bitcoin due to weak demand, with only 1.3% of money transfers involving crypto assets between September 2021 and June 2024. As a central banker now, I am revisiting this topic from a different perspective, considering the impact of geopolitical fragmentation and technological advancements on financial systems.
Key Questions
I will explore this topic with you by addressing three key questions:
1. What geopolitical and economic environment are we operating in, and how does digitalization play a role?
2. How are these developments affecting financial market structures, architecture, and instruments?
3. What is our response as a central bank?
Geopolitical and Economic Environment
In light of the uncertainties following the new US administration, we have witnessed heightened levels of uncertainty and market fluctuations. Trade flows indicate a trend towards fragmentation, with rising geopolitical risks impacting imports, supply chains, and global trade.
Financial flows, although less fragmented along geopolitical lines, could still have significant consequences. Geopolitical shocks, such as Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the Brexit referendum, have been shown to affect lending, risk aversion, credit spreads, volatility, and interest rates.
The role of digitalization and technology is also crucial, with questions arising about the possibility of a tech bubble. Historical examples of significant capital inflows into groundbreaking innovations, like the railroad boom and the second Industrial Revolution, highlight the uncertainties surrounding new technologies and market assessments.
To address these challenges, strengthening Europe is essential. With international dependencies in digital infrastructure and technologies, promoting technological sovereignty through investments in European IT providers is crucial.
In conclusion, geopolitical developments have created economic policy uncertainties, leading to growing fragmentation in trade and financial flows. As we navigate these challenges, it is imperative to monitor and adapt to the changing landscape to ensure stability and growth. Germany and Europe have significant technological dependencies. Strengthening Europe by integrating financial markets and strategically managing digital dependencies is crucial to addressing these challenges.
The evolving financial market architecture, instruments, and structures, influenced by geopolitical fragmentation and technological progress, impact how central banks fulfill their mandates. For example, the rise of crypto assets can affect financial stability and monetary policy transmission. While systemic risks from crypto markets are currently limited, stablecoins could pose risks due to their potential to be used outside the crypto system for cross-border payments.
As the global crypto market grows and becomes more interconnected with the traditional financial system, there is a need for internationally agreed global standards to regulate crypto assets. The use of foreign currencies or crypto assets as a means of transactions could undermine a central bank’s ability to conduct monetary policy effectively.
In response to these changes, the Bundesbank is intensifying research on the future of finance, including the impact of crypto assets, non-bank financial intermediaries, and artificial intelligence on financial markets. This research aims to support the calibration of monetary policy instruments and address the evolving landscape of financial markets. We are currently working on a central bank digital currency (CBDC) in the Eurosystem. From our perspective, CBDC offers numerous strategic advantages and solutions to various challenges. A retail CBDC would enhance the resilience of the euro and the euro area against emerging forms of money and make European payments more efficient. It would also provide a European alternative to non-European card schemes and bigtech payment solutions, addressing concerns about sovereignty and security.
The digital euro is envisioned as a widely accepted form of central bank money throughout the euro area, complementing traditional banknotes and coins. However, before its introduction, the necessary legal framework must be established by EU legislators. This initiative is reminiscent of the United States’ transition from the British pound to the dollar, emphasizing sovereignty.
Furthermore, a wholesale CBDC solution could bring additional benefits such as increased automation, 24/7 availability, and enhanced efficiency in capital market transactions. The Bundesbank is exploring wholesale CBDC for interbank trading and large-value transactions to improve efficiency and security in the financial system.
To facilitate the adoption of tokenized central bank money, the Bundesbank has developed a technical solution to connect market DLT platforms with the Eurosystem’s payment system. This initiative aims to provide tokenized central bank money to the market through a joint Eurosystem solution in the future.
The Eurosystem is also working on settling DLT-based transactions in central bank money through an interoperability solution with TARGET Services and exploring long-term solutions for cross-border transactions. This initiative aims to position Europe as a pioneer in developing a tokenized financial market infrastructure.
In conclusion, the Eurosystem is actively developing both wholesale and retail CBDC solutions to meet the demand for digital payments using secure public money. The Bundesbank will continue to monitor developments in this space and contribute to shaping the future of finance in alignment with its price stability mandate. However, my interest in this topic predates that event. During my time as Lead Economist and Programme Leader for Central America at the World Bank, I oversaw El Salvador’s economic activities during President Nayib Bukele’s inauguration. This is why I closely followed El Salvador’s decision to adopt Bitcoin as legal tender in 2021, making it the first country to do so.
Now, as a central banker, I am revisiting this topic from a different perspective due to the current geopolitical fragmentation and technological advancements affecting financial structures. This has led us to establish a new research focus on the «future of finance,» which includes examining the impact of stablecoins and digital currencies.
I am eager to delve into this subject with you by exploring three key questions:
1. What is the geopolitical and economic environment we are operating in, and how does digitalization play a role?
2. How are these developments influencing financial market structures, architecture, and instruments?
3. What should be our response as a central bank to these changes?
It is crucial to address these challenges by strengthening Europe, integrating its financial markets, and strategically managing digital dependencies. This impacts our ability as a central bank to fulfill our mandate. To illustrate, let’s consider the example of crypto assets.
The influence of crypto assets on financial stability and monetary policy transmission is significant. While systemic risks are currently limited due to the relatively small size of crypto markets and their separation from traditional financial systems, stablecoins present a potential risk. Stablecoins, which aim to maintain a stable value relative to a specified asset like a central bank currency, could pose risks if doubts arise about the adequacy of their reserve assets.
The continued growth of stablecoins and their integration with traditional financial systems could jeopardize financial stability, especially in Germany. To address these risks, the timely implementation of globally agreed standards for regulating crypto assets is crucial.
Furthermore, the widespread use of assets other than the domestic currency for transactions could undermine the central bank’s ability to conduct monetary policy effectively. Research shows that the substitution of foreign currency for the domestic unit of account can diminish the impact of domestic monetary policy shocks and reduce monetary policy independence.
As the financial market evolves, we, as a central bank, are intensifying our research on the future of finance to understand the implications for financial stability and monetary policy transmission. This includes studying the impact of crypto assets, non-bank financial intermediaries, and artificial intelligence on financial markets. By expanding our research in these areas, we aim to support the calibration of monetary policy instruments and actively shape the future of finance. En el Eurosystema, actualmente estamos trabajando en una moneda digital de banco central (MDBC). Desde nuestro punto de vista, la MDBC ofrece muchas ventajas estratégicas y ofrece una solución a muchos de los desafíos que mencioné anteriormente. En primer lugar, una MDBC minorista haría que el euro y la zona euro fueran más resistentes a las formas emergentes de dinero. En segundo lugar, haría que los pagos europeos fueran más eficientes. A pesar de varias iniciativas a lo largo de los años, Europa aún no tiene una solución digital europea para pagos minoristas que pueda utilizarse en toda la zona euro. Un tercer beneficio estratégico aborda las preocupaciones sobre soberanía y seguridad: la tendencia hacia pagos digitales está llevando a una creciente dependencia de esquemas de tarjetas y soluciones de pago no europeas proporcionadas por grandes tecnológicas no europeas. Un euro digital ofrece una alternativa europea. Técnicamente, se ejecutaría en infraestructura europea y nos haría menos dependientes de proveedores no europeos.
El euro digital está destinado a ser una forma digital de dinero del banco central que sea aceptada en toda la zona euro y complemente de manera significativa el dinero del banco central convencional, es decir, los billetes y monedas. Pero antes de que se pueda introducir un euro digital, los legisladores de la UE primero deben establecer los cimientos legales necesarios.
Esto me recuerda a una visita que una vez hice con mi familia a la Casa de la Moneda de los Estados Unidos en Filadelfia. Proporciona una poderosa ilustración de cómo los Padres Fundadores de los Estados Unidos decidieron dejar de utilizar la libra esterlina británica e introducir su propia moneda, el dólar, ya que lo consideraban un elemento clave de soberanía.
Beneficios adicionales, como un mayor grado de automatización y disponibilidad las 24 horas del día, los 7 días de la semana, también podrían aprovecharse a través de la introducción de una solución mayorista de MDBC. También nos permitiría hacer transacciones complejas en el mercado de capitales de manera más eficiente. En otras palabras, sería más barato, más rápido, más transparente y requeriría menos coordinación.
Por eso, en el Bundesbank también estamos explorando la MDBC mayorista para el comercio entre bancos, liquidar transacciones de alto valor y aumentar la eficiencia y los niveles de seguridad en el sistema financiero. Una característica clave son los pagos habilitados por contratos inteligentes, que serán un elemento innovador. Por lo tanto, se trata de más que el saldo de la cuenta que los bancos comerciales tienen actualmente con el banco central.
En el Bundesbank, hemos desarrollado nuestra propia «solución de activación» técnica, que permite conectar plataformas de tecnología de libros distribuidos del mercado con el sistema de pagos tradicional del Eurosystema. Esto despertó un considerable interés entre los participantes del mercado durante una fase exploratoria el año pasado. Nuestro objetivo es poner a disposición del mercado dinero del banco central tokenizado como parte de una futura solución conjunta del Eurosystema.
Para lograr esto, el Eurosystema está ampliando su iniciativa para liquidar transacciones basadas en tecnología de libros distribuidos en dinero del banco central. La iniciativa seguirá un enfoque de dos vías. En primer lugar, en el Eurosystema, estamos desarrollando una solución de interoperabilidad con los Servicios TARGET. En segundo lugar, estamos explorando una solución integrada a largo plazo, que incluye la liquidación de transacciones transfronterizas.
Por lo tanto, deseamos aprovechar el impulso actual y asegurarnos de que Europa continúe siendo pionera en el desarrollo de una infraestructura de mercado financiero tokenizada. Esto representa el primer paso hacia un ecosistema más digital que construiremos en estrecha colaboración con los participantes del mercado en los próximos años.
Para responder a la tercera pregunta: Para satisfacer la demanda del público y de los bancos de pagos digitales utilizando dinero público seguro, estamos trabajando dentro del Eurosystema en el desarrollo de MDBC, tanto en una variante mayorista como minorista. Además, estamos ampliando nuestra investigación sobre el futuro de las finanzas.
En conclusión, damas y caballeros, eso concluye mi discurso, muchas gracias por su atención. El Bundesbank seguirá monitoreando de cerca los desarrollos en este espacio a medida que se desarrollen, y desempeñaremos un papel activo en la conformación del futuro de las finanzas en cumplimiento de nuestro mandato de estabilidad de precios. Check against delivery.
1 Introduction
Ladies and gentlemen,
Crypto assets have been a major talking point ever since Donald Trump ran for office as the “crypto president”. But I was very interested in this topic even before that.
You see, in my previous role as Lead Economist and Programme Leader for Central America at the World Bank, my remit also covered El Salvador at the time of the then new President Nayib Bukele’s inauguration. That’s why I followed El Salvador’s “Bitcoin experiment” in 2021 with great interest – it had decided to become the first country in the world to introduce Bitcoin as legal tender.
Just three years later, in 2024, El Salvador bowed to pressure from the IMF and responded to the weak demand by abolishing the obligation for merchants to accept Bitcoin as a means of payment. Just 1.3% of money transfers between September 2021 and June 2024 were made in crypto assets. [1]
Today, as a central banker, I’m revisiting this topic from a different vantage point. Current geopolitical fragmentation and technological progress are impacting the financial architecture, markets, and instruments. This affects how we, as a central bank, are able to fulfill our mandate. That is why, with the “future of finance,” we are establishing a new research focus, which also looks at the impact of stablecoins and digital currencies.
I would like to explore this topic with you based on the following three key questions:
What kind of geopolitical and economic environment are we operating in and what role does digitalisation play?
How are these developments affecting financial market structures, architecture and instruments?
What is our response as a central bank?
2 Geopolitical and economic environment
Since the election of the new US administration, we have observed a high level of uncertainty. This is reflected in uncertainty indices as well as in market fluctuations.
Looking at trade flows, indications of fragmentation are fairly abundant. For instance, a Bundesbank study shows that rising geopolitical risks in trade partner countries dampen imports of goods, make them more expensive and impair supply chains. In addition, they are likely to be conducive to a fragmentation of global trade.
Compared to trade, evidence that financial flows have become more fragmented along geopolitical lines is less pronounced. But this could have far-reaching consequences as well.
In particular, recent findings from Bundesbank research indicate that geopolitical shocks like Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 or the Hamas attack in October 2023 decrease lending, increase risk aversion, widen credit spreads, and raise volatility and interest rates.
Another recent Bundesbank paper takes the Brexit referendum as an example of a fragmentation shock. Amongst other things, it finds that international financial frictions following deglobalisation shocks can imply negative real effects. In particular, German banks reduced lending to UK firms following the shock owing to increased uncertainty about future losses.
I was recently on a panel with Hélène Rey, who presented a fascinating way to reflect on the current situation in conceptual terms. Hélène drew interesting parallels to the 1930s, when the United Kingdom relinquished its role as the foremost economic power, but the United States was not yet ready to step up and take over – a phenomenon known as the “Kindleberger Trap”. That was a period of high volatility in the markets. Whether we are currently in such a phase still remains to be seen. From a risk control perspective, however, it is also our responsibility to consider various scenarios. In any case, one thing is clear: If Europe strengthens its financial and political sovereignty, for example through the creation of a unified capital market and of digital central bank money, the euro could become more attractive as an international investment currency.
When we look at the role of digitalisation and technology, many ask whether a tech bubble is looming.
A look at history shows that groundbreaking innovations have often attracted significant capital inflows. Examples include the railroad boom in the United States in the 19th century or the second Industrial Revolution (1890s-1920s).
Research indicates that such episodes were characterised by major uncertainty about how new technologies would spread and which companies would ultimately emerge as winners.
Research also shows that markets struggle to assess the value of new technologies, which can lead to abrupt price corrections. The risk lies less in the innovation itself and more in its financing.
Therefore, it is crucial to closely monitor the debt levels and risk concentration of banks and non-banks. Bundesbank President Joachim Nagel recently reminded us (in an interview) that Europe had learned the lessons from the 2008 financial crisis. Together, Europe weathered the financial turmoil in 2023 rather well. With effective regulation for banks.
The key to addressing all these challenges is to strengthen Europe. Which brings me to my next point.
Europe has long embraced international cooperation and global trade. This has created international dependencies. Europe currently imports more than 80% of its digital infrastructure and technologies.
Three US companies – Amazon, Microsoft, and Google – dominate nearly 70% of the European cloud computing market (IaaS), compared to only 2% for the largest European providers (SAP and Telekom, around 2% each).
To reduce these dependencies and promote technological sovereignty, investment needs to be made in European IT providers.
At the Bundesbank, we have systematically examined our IT stack. We must now consciously decide where to reduce dependencies and where to deliberately maintain and actively manage them.
To answer the first question: Geopolitical developments have led to major economic policy uncertainty. Recent research indicates growing fragmentation in trade and financial flows. Germany and Europe have significant technological dependencies that need to be addressed. Strengthening Europe through integrating financial markets and strategically managing digital dependencies is crucial to overcoming these challenges.
The current geopolitical fragmentation and technological advancements are impacting financial architecture, markets, and instruments, affecting the ability of central banks to fulfill their mandates. One example of this is the influence of crypto assets on financial stability and monetary policy transmission. While systemic risks from crypto markets are currently limited, stablecoins could become more relevant, posing potential risks to the traditional financial system.
The growth of global crypto markets and their increasing ties to the traditional financial system could pose risks to financial stability in Germany. To address these risks, it is important to implement globally agreed standards for regulating crypto assets and prevent cross-border regulatory arbitrage.
The increased use of crypto assets and stablecoins is changing financial market structures and instruments, requiring central banks to carefully assess the implications for financial stability and monetary policy. As a response to these changes, central banks like the Bundesbank are intensifying research on the future of finance, including the impact of crypto assets, non-bank financial intermediaries, and artificial intelligence on financial markets and the real economy.
Central banks are actively shaping the future of finance by conducting research to support the calibration of monetary policy instruments and understanding how non-bank financial intermediaries influence monetary policy transmission. More research is needed in this area to determine the drivers of NBFI growth and their impact on portfolio allocation, as well as the role of the insurance sector in absorbing liquidity risks and transmitting monetary policy shocks. Currently, within the Eurosystem, we are actively developing a central bank digital currency (CBDC). We believe that CBDC offers numerous strategic advantages and can address many of the challenges we face.
A retail CBDC would enhance the resilience of the euro and the euro area against emerging forms of money and improve the efficiency of European payments. Additionally, it would provide a European alternative to non-European payment solutions, reducing reliance on external providers.
The digital euro aims to complement traditional central bank money (banknotes and coins) and be accepted throughout the euro area. However, the legal framework for its introduction needs to be established by EU legislators.
We are also exploring the benefits of a wholesale CBDC for interbank trading, large-value transactions, and enhancing efficiency and security in the financial system. This includes leveraging smart contract-enabled payments for innovative solutions.
To facilitate the adoption of tokenized central bank money, the Eurosystem is working on settlement solutions for DLT-based transactions. This initiative will enhance interoperability with TARGET Services and explore long-term integrated solutions for cross-border transactions.
As we continue to pioneer the development of tokenized financial market infrastructure, we are committed to collaborating with market participants to build a more digital ecosystem. Our research and development efforts also extend to meeting the demand for digital payments through secure public money, with a focus on both wholesale and retail CBDC solutions.
In conclusion, we are dedicated to monitoring and shaping the future of finance in alignment with our price stability mandate. Thank you for your attention. Please rephrase this sentence. Please rewrite this sentence.
QUELLEN
