
Please note that the following remarks are not verbatim.
1 Dealing with Uncertainty
Ladies and gentlemen,
I appreciate the invitation and warm welcome. It’s a pleasure to be here in Mannheim.
The ZEW has been a platform for discussions on political, economic, and academic topics for over thirty years. The focus is on current economic policy issues and developments.
We are living in a time of rapid changes, especially in trade policy. Issues become outdated quickly, but one thing is certain: there is much to discuss today.
Ladies and gentlemen,
When the ZEW proposed a topic for today’s discussion, I was certain it wouldn’t be outdated. As Alan Greenspan once said, uncertainty is a defining characteristic of monetary policy.
Even in times of relative stability, uncertainty is always present. Central bankers never underestimate uncertainty.
Monetary policy decisions are always made in the face of uncertainty. European monetary policy is navigating through a period of high uncertainty.
In my talk, I will address how monetary policy deals with uncertainty, the main causes of uncertainty, and how the euro area is handling uncertainty.
2 Navigating Uncertainty
Monetary policy decisions have a gradual impact. It requires a forward-looking approach to assess future developments.
Data and economic models help us navigate through uncertainty. There are two types of uncertainty: data uncertainty and model uncertainty.
Data uncertainty arises due to incomplete information about the economy. Models simplify complex realities to predict outcomes.
For example, economic activity data in the euro area is released with delays and revisions, leading to uncertainty in assessing the current situation.
Incomplete knowledge of the present adds to uncertainty in decision-making.
Model uncertainty also plays a role as models make assumptions about relationships and parameters that can evolve over time.
Navigating through uncertainty in monetary policy requires a careful consideration of data and model limitations.
Estimating uncertainties is crucial, as data uncertainty and model uncertainty are closely linked. Different models yield varied results due to uncertainties in their structure, parameters, and estimation variables, leading to different conclusions. Experts play a key role in finalizing forecasts. In times of unexpected events, such as those affecting monetary policymakers, comprehensive information is essential. However, data and model uncertainties make it challenging to precisely determine the nature and magnitude of shocks. To address this, policymakers gather information from various sources and continuously improve forecasting models, leveraging tools like artificial intelligence. In uncertain settings, a robust strategy is advisable to avoid costly errors. Monetary policymakers must act as risk managers, considering different scenarios and their implications on inflation. Gradual approaches may be suitable in high uncertainty situations to prevent policy reversals, while swift responses may be necessary in cases where risks are particularly unfavorable. In times of uncertainty, policymakers should consider robust control approaches in decision-making. The uncertainties caused by trade policy flip-flopping, especially by the US, have significant impacts on global markets and economies, leading to fluctuations and unpredictability. Market participants, especially in the United States and the euro area, are facing a high degree of uncertainty. Trade policy uncertainty has peaked this spring, as evidenced by the number of mentions in newspaper articles. The questions surrounding trade policy, such as which tariffs will be implemented or withdrawn, retaliatory measures, and the impact on global trade flows, contribute to this uncertainty.
The unpredictability of the trade policy cycle, with tariffs being threatened, imposed, withdrawn, and threatened again, adds to the complexity. For example, the US tariff policy on the EU has seen multiple changes in a short span of time, leading to a less stable forecasting environment.
The economic impact of US tariff policy is likely to negatively affect Germany and the euro area, with decreased competitiveness in the US market, lower exports, reduced demand, and increased uncertainty affecting investment decisions. The Bundesbank’s simulations suggest a potential reduction in economic output in the euro area.
The impact on inflation in the euro area remains uncertain, with factors such as weaker growth, potential diversion effects, and retaliatory tariffs influencing price levels. Exchange rate movements in response to tariffs also play a role in inflation dynamics.
Longer-term effects of tariffs on global value chains and supply chains are expected to materialize, impacting production structures and costs. Structural changes such as climate change, demographic shifts, digitalization, and geopolitical realities further complicate the assessment of medium-term inflation developments.
New geopolitical realities, along with the uncertainties in trade policy and structural changes, pose additional challenges for Europe, requiring increased investments in security and defence capabilities. There is a strong argument against funding immediate needs through budget rebalancing alone. The European Commission suggests activating the national escape clause in the EU fiscal rules to allow countries to borrow more temporarily. This approach seems reasonable as it would help countries gradually adjust to increased defense spending. However, it is crucial to understand that this should only be a short-term measure, as persistent deficits are not sustainable. A stable Europe relies on sound public finances that prioritize essential items through the core budget and current revenue.
Overall, there are indications of a more expansionary fiscal policy in the euro area. The impact of increased debt on inflation depends on various factors, making it challenging to predict future developments. The ECB Governing Council is closely monitoring these risks, acknowledging that higher defense and infrastructure spending could potentially raise inflation in the medium term.
As for monetary policy in the euro area, the ECB Governing Council aims to stabilize inflation at 2% over the medium term. Decisions are made on a meeting-by-meeting basis, considering the latest data and uncertainties in the economic environment. The Council remains flexible in responding to changing conditions and aims to ensure that inflation expectations are well-anchored to facilitate the achievement of the inflation target.
Maintaining credibility in stability commitment and clear communication is essential to anchor inflation expectations. Utilizing AI-assisted text analysis methods can further enhance transparency and ensure that monetary policy communication effectively conveys the desired signals without causing market disruptions or additional uncertainty. Die Analyse von KI ersetzt nicht menschliche Expertise. Aber sie kann uns helfen, unser Verständnis der Kommunikation über Geldpolitik und ihrer Auswirkungen weiter zu verbessern.
5 Schlussfolgerung
Meine Damen und Herren,
Wenn Sie sich gerade fragen, ob diese Rede von KI generiert wurde oder ob sie überhaupt jemals enden wird, kann ich Ihnen versichern, dass echte Menschen am Redaktionsprozess beteiligt waren und ich nun zu meinen abschließenden Bemerkungen komme. Unser KI-Modell wird derzeit zur Bewertung von Texten verwendet. Übrigens wurde diese Rede in monetärer Hinsicht als «neutral» eingestuft.
Alan Greenspan hätte das Modell wahrscheinlich an seine Grenzen gebracht. Seine Aussagen waren oft so kryptisch, dass Medien und Finanzmärkte nach anderen Hinweisen suchten: Zum Beispiel, wenn es um geldpolitische Entscheidungen ging, betrachteten sie die Dicke seiner Aktentasche. Eine schlanke Aktentasche deutete auf ein ereignisloses Treffen ohne Zinsänderungen hin, während eine prall gefüllte Aktentasche Diskussionsbedarf und eine Anpassung des Leitzinses signalisierte. Während seiner Amtszeit wurde Herr Greenspan einmal gefragt, ob an dieser Theorie etwas dran sei. Seine Antwort: «Die Dicke meiner Aktentasche hing davon ab, ob ich ein Sandwich eingepackt hatte.»
Leider können nicht alle Unsicherheiten so leicht aus dem landschaftlichen Bild der Geldpolitik getilgt werden. Aber, wie wir sehen können, tragen direkte Fragen und Gespräche oft zu größerer Klarheit bei. Ich freue mich umso mehr auf unsere Diskussion!
Vielen Dank.
Fußnoten:
- Greenspan, A. (2003), Geldpolitik unter Unsicherheit, Bemerkungen bei einem Symposium des Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Jackson Hole, Wyoming, 29. August 2003.
- Stock, J. H. und M. W. Watson (2002), Hat sich der Konjunkturzyklus verändert und warum?, NBER Arbeitspapier Nr. 9127.
- Nagel, J. (2025), r* im geldpolitischen Universum: Navigationsstern oder Dunkle Materie?, Vorlesung an der London School of Economics and Political Science, London, 12. Februar 2025.
- Brainard, W. (1967), Unsicherheit und die Wirksamkeit der Politik, American Economic Review, Bd. 57, Nr. 2, S. 411-425.
- Hansen, L. P. und T. J. Sargent (2001), Robuste Kontrolle und Modellunsicherheit, American Economic Review, Bd. 91, Nr. 2.
- Siehe Deutsche Bundesbank (2025), Potenzielle Auswirkungen des aktuellen Handelsstreits zwischen den Vereinigten Staaten und China, Monatsbericht, Mai 2025.
- Das Budget-Labor an der Yale University (2025), Stand der US-Zölle: 12. Mai 2025, Yale University.
- Eine Beschreibung des Handelspolitik-Unsicherheitsindex finden Sie in Caldara, D., M. Iacoviello, P. Molligo, A. Prestipino und A. Raffo (2020), Die wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen der Handelspolitikunsicherheit, Journal of Monetary Economics, Bd. 109. Siehe auch Deutsche Bundesbank (2025), Die makroökonomischen Auswirkungen erhöhter Unsicherheit, Monatsbericht, Mai 2025.
- Deutsche Bundesbank (2018), Die makroökonomischen Auswirkungen von Unsicherheit, Monatsbericht, Oktober 2018, S. 49-64.
- Deutsche Bundesbank (2020), Inlandsökonomische Auswirkungen von Importzöllen im Hinblick auf globale Wertschöpfungsketten, Monatsbericht, Januar 2020.
- Bayoumi, T., J. Barkema und D. A. Cerdeiro (2019), Die starre Struktur globaler Lieferketten, IMF Arbeitspapier Nr. 19/193.
- Siehe Deutsche Bundesbank (2025), EU-Fiskalregeln: vorgeschlagene Aktivierung nationaler Ausnahmeklauseln, Monatsbericht, Mai 2025.
- Deutsche Bundesbank (2024), Der globale Desinflationsprozess und seine Kosten, Monatsbericht, Juli 2024.
- D’Acunto, F., U. Malmendier und M. Weber (2022), Was sagen uns die Daten über Inflationserwartungen? NBER Arbeitspapiere, Nr. 29825, März 2022.
- Deutsche Bundesbank (2025), Geldpolitikkommunikation nach künstlicher Intelligenz, Monatsbericht, März 2025.
- Gavin, W. T. und R. J. Mandal (2000), Im Inneren der Aktentasche: Die Kunst, die Federal Reserve vorauszusagen, Der Regionale Ökonom, Juli 2000.
- Alan Greenspan in einem Interview mit «Stern»: «In der Badewanne hatte ich viele gute Ideen«, 30. September 2007.
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1 Gewisse Unsicherheit
Meine Damen und Herren,
Vielen Dank für Ihre Einladung und herzliche Begrüßung. Ich freue mich sehr, heute hier in Mannheim bei Ihnen zu sein.
Mit dieser Veranstaltungsreihe bietet das ZEW seit über drei Jahrzehnten ein Forum für politischen, wirtschaftlichen und akademischen Austausch. Sie haben Ihre Erwartungen sehr klar formuliert: Aktuelle wirtschaftspolitische Themen und Entwicklungen stehen im Fokus.
Derzeit häufen sich tatsächlich die drängenden Themen und Entwicklungen. Nehmen Sie zum Beispiel die zahlreichen Kurswechsel in der Handelspolitik der US-Regierung. Manchmal sind die Themen bereits veraltet, bevor man sie überhaupt ansprechen konnte. Auf jeden Fall ist eines klar: Wir haben heute viel zu besprechen.
Meine Damen und Herren,
Als das ZEW mir vor etwas mehr als zwei Monaten ein Thema vorschlug, hatte ich keinen Zweifel: Es bestand keine Chance, dass das gewählte Thema bereits veraltet wäre. Und warum auch nicht? Wie Alan Greenspan, ehemaliger Vorsitzender der US-Notenbank, einmal sagte: «Unsicherheit ist nicht nur ein wichtiger Bestandteil der geldpolitischen Landschaft; sie ist das prägende Merkmal dieser Landschaft.»
Greenspan sagte dies im Jahr 2003. Gerade war der Begriff «die große Mäßigung» geprägt worden, um eine Zeit außergewöhnlicher makroökonomischer Stabilität zu beschreiben. Die Unsicherheit schien zu dieser Zeit relativ gering zu sein. Dennoch betonte Greenspan den Faktor Unsicherheit. Und er steht damit nicht allein da. Ich könnte mir vorstellen, dass keiner von Ihnen jemals einen Zentralbanker gehört hat, der sagt, dass die Unsicherheit derzeit vernachlässigbar ist.
Aus eigener Erfahrung kann ich bestätigen, dass wir bei geldpolitischen Entscheidungen immer mit Unsicherheit konfrontiert sind. Es liegt schließlich in der Natur der Sache: Die Entscheidungen haben Auswirkungen auf eine Zukunft, die nicht genau vorhergesagt werden kann. Der Umgang mit Unsicherheit ist daher Teil des Aufgabenprofils von Geldpolitikern. The causes and level of uncertainty are constantly changing, leading us to the topic of European monetary policy during times of high uncertainty.
In today’s lecture, I will explore three main questions: How should monetary policy address uncertainty in general? What are the primary causes of uncertainty currently and in the future? How is the euro area’s monetary policy navigating through the current period of heightened uncertainty?
Monetary policy operates under uncertainty as its impact unfolds gradually. Decisions made today impact inflation in the future, requiring a forward-looking approach. This means assessing future developments using a broad range of data and economic models to navigate through data and model uncertainty.
Data uncertainty arises from incomplete information about the economy, while model uncertainty stems from simplifying complex realities into models. Uncertainties in model structure, parameters, and estimation variables can lead to different conclusions, especially during unexpected events. To address this, policymakers gather comprehensive information from various sources and continuously improve forecast models.
In the face of data and model uncertainty, a robust strategy is crucial in monetary policy. It is essential to avoid sudden shifts in approach and instead opt for a stable and reliable strategy, akin to sturdy footwear in the monetary policy landscape. A solid strategy leads to positive outcomes in various scenarios and helps prevent costly errors. When faced with high uncertainty, monetary policymakers must act as risk managers, considering different scenarios, potential outcomes, and the costs and benefits of different policy paths. The approach taken depends on the situation. A cautious approach may be appropriate when uncertainty is high, as sudden policy changes can lead to increased volatility and instability. However, in certain cases, a swift and comprehensive response may be necessary to prevent unfavorable outcomes. In times of uncertainty, policymakers should consider robust control approaches when making decisions. Furthermore, the high level of uncertainty complicates longer-term planning, leading enterprises to potentially delay investment decisions in anticipation of more stable conditions. The Bundesbank’s simulation of US tariff policies, China’s retaliatory measures, and exchange rate responses indicated a potential decrease in economic output for the euro area over the medium term. The impact of the trade dispute on inflation in the euro area remains uncertain, as various factors could either dampen or fuel inflation. The evolution of exchange rates is also unpredictable, with potential effects on inflation in the euro area. The reconfiguration of global value chains due to trade barriers could lead to increased costs for enterprises, affecting prices in the medium term. Structural changes such as climate change, demographic shifts, and digitalization further contribute to the complexity of predicting medium-term inflation. Additionally, new geopolitical realities and increased defense spending requirements add to the uncertainty surrounding future economic developments. Overall, these uncertainties make it challenging to forecast inflation trends in the euro area, prompting the ECB Governing Council to closely monitor risks and adjust monetary policy accordingly. Despite positive developments in inflation rates, the Council aims to stabilize inflation at 2% over the medium term, adjusting the monetary policy stance as needed based on data-driven decisions. The future direction of monetary policy, including potential interest rate cuts, will be determined on a meeting-by-meeting basis moving forward. In recent years, this approach has been successful in dealing with heightened uncertainty, such as during the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine. We have remained flexible and continuously evaluated how incoming data impact the medium-term inflation outlook. In addition to our baseline scenario, we have also conducted scenario analyses to assess the likelihood of less probable outcomes.
Using this approach, I believe we are well-prepared to address the current high level of uncertainty. Inflation may vary from expectations due to factors like the tariff dispute, exchange rates, services prices, and fiscal policies. Making decisions based on the latest data at each meeting is crucial in the current environment, as committing to a specific interest rate path is challenging.
In June, the ECB Governing Council will have updated data and forecasts to adjust the monetary policy stance towards achieving our goal of reaching and stabilizing the inflation rate at 2%. Anchoring inflation expectations is essential for policymakers to manage inflation after unexpected events, as was demonstrated in successfully combating high inflation rates in the past.
To ensure inflation expectations remain anchored, clear communication and credibility in our commitment to stability are necessary. The use of AI-assisted text analysis methods can further enhance clarity in communication and help understand the impact of monetary policy communication.
In conclusion, while uncertainties remain, open dialogue and clear communication contribute to greater clarity in monetary policy decision-making. Thank you for your attention.
1 Cierta incertidumbre
Señoras y señores,
Muchas gracias por su invitación y cálida bienvenida. Estoy encantado de estar aquí con ustedes en Mannheim hoy.
Con esta serie de eventos, el ZEW ha proporcionado un foro de intercambio político, económico y académico durante más de tres décadas. Han dejado muy claras sus expectativas: Los temas políticos económicos urgentes y los desarrollos recientes están en el foco.
En la actualidad, los problemas apremiantes y los desarrollos llegan rápidamente. Tome, por ejemplo, los numerosos cambios en la política comercial de la Administración de los Estados Unidos. A veces, los problemas ya están desactualizados antes de que tenga la oportunidad de abordarlos. En cualquier caso, una cosa está clara: tenemos mucho de qué hablar hoy.
Señoras y señores,
Cuando el ZEW me propuso un tema hace poco más de dos meses, no tuve ninguna duda en mi mente: no había posibilidad de que el tema elegido ya estuviera desactualizado. ¿Y por qué no? Como dijo Alan Greenspan, ex presidente de la Reserva Federal de los Estados Unidos, una vez: «La incertidumbre no es solo una característica importante del panorama de la política monetaria; es la característica definitoria de ese panorama».
Greenspan dijo esto en 2003. El término «la Gran Moderación» acababa de acuñarse para describir un período de estabilidad macroeconómica excepcional. La incertidumbre parecía ser relativamente baja en ese momento. Sin embargo, Greenspan hizo hincapié en el factor de la incertidumbre. Y no está solo en esto. Me imagino que ninguno de ustedes ha escuchado nunca a un banquero central decir que la incertidumbre es actualmente insignificante.
Por mi propia experiencia, puedo confirmar que, al tomar decisiones de política monetaria, siempre nos enfrentamos a la incertidumbre. Después de todo, es parte de la naturaleza del asunto: las decisiones impactan en un futuro que no se puede predecir con precisión. Lidiar con la incertidumbre es, por lo tanto, parte de la descripción del trabajo de los responsables de la política monetaria. Lo que cambia constantemente son las causas y el grado de incertidumbre. Y eso nos lleva al corazón del tema de hoy: la política monetaria europea en tiempos de alta incertidumbre.
En mi conferencia de hoy, abordaré tres preguntas clave: ¿Cómo debería lidiar la política monetaria con la incertidumbre en general? ¿Cuáles son las principales causas de incertidumbre en el presente y en el futuro? ¿Cómo está navegando la política monetaria en la zona euro en el actual período de alta incertidumbre?
2 Política monetaria bajo incertidumbre
Comencemos con el tema que acabamos de tocar: el impacto de la política monetaria se desarrolla solo gradualmente. Las decisiones de hoy afectan a la inflación de mañana. La brecha entre las decisiones y su impacto requiere un enfoque a futuro. O, dicho de otra manera: cuando estamos en el panorama de la política monetaria, también estamos mirando hacia nuestro entorno más distante.
Esto significa que una parte central de la preparación para las reuniones de política monetaria es evaluar los desarrollos futuros. Y, a diferencia del clima, por ejemplo, la situación actual no está del todo clara, tampoco. Por lo tanto, un amplio conjunto de datos y diversos modelos económicos nos son útiles. Como una lupa y un par de binoculares, nos facilitan examinar nuestro entorno lo más de cerca posible. A partir de esto, podemos diferenciar entre dos tipos de incertidumbre: la incertidumbre de los datos y la incertidumbre del modelo.
La incertidumbre de los datos surge porque no toda la información está disponible para obtener una imagen del «verdadero» estado de la economía. Hay varias razones para esto: no todos los datos de interés se registran estadísticamente o se pueden registrar en su totalidad. Algunos datos solo están disponibles con un considerable retraso en el tiempo. Some data may have measurement issues, requiring later revisions for accuracy. For example, Eurostat provides a preliminary flash estimate of economic activity in the euro area about four weeks after the end of a quarter, based on a limited dataset with estimated figures for the third month of the quarter. Subsequent estimates with more detailed breakdowns are released later, but changes are still expected. This highlights the incomplete knowledge of real-time data and the uncertainties in the models used for analysis and prediction. Parameters, estimation variables, and unobservable variables add to the uncertainty, leading to different results and conclusions. In response to unexpected events, policymakers rely on various sources of information and continuously improve forecast models, utilizing technologies like artificial intelligence. In light of data and model uncertainty, a robust strategy is essential in monetary policy decision-making to avoid costly mistakes. When uncertainty is high, policymakers act as risk managers, considering different scenarios and assessing their implications before making decisions. Gradual approaches may be favored in uncertain times to prevent abrupt changes that could destabilize expectations and financial markets. However, in certain situations, a more proactive response may be necessary to mitigate risks, such as in cases where inflation expectations are at risk of drifting off course. Responding quickly and comprehensively is crucial in times of high uncertainty. Monetary policymakers should consider robust control approaches when making decisions, especially during uncertain times. Trade policy flip-flopping, such as the unpredictable actions of the United States, can have a significant impact on global markets and economic growth. The uncertainty surrounding tariffs and retaliatory measures can lead to fluctuations in financial markets and hinder long-term planning for businesses. The effects of trade disputes on economic growth and inflation in the euro area are uncertain, with potential impacts on exports, demand, and investment decisions. The direction of the trade dispute and its implications on inflation and exchange rates remain unclear, highlighting the need for vigilant monitoring and strategic decision-making. Tariffs can significantly disrupt trade in intermediate goods by affecting global production networks. Enterprises have optimized their supply chains for cost efficiency, but trade barriers are causing disruptions in global value chains. This requires companies to recalibrate their supply chains, form new partnerships, and enhance their resilience, which may lead to some loss of efficiency gains in the short term. These structural changes, along with climate change, demographic shifts, digitalization, and geopolitical uncertainties, make it challenging to predict medium-term inflation trends.
The reconfiguration of global value chains is intertwined with other structural changes, such as climate change, demographic shifts, and digitalization, which could impact inflation dynamics. Additionally, new geopolitical realities and uncertainties surrounding defense spending in Europe add to the complexity of the inflation environment. The European Central Bank is closely monitoring these risks and considering the impact of fiscal policies on inflation.
The European Central Bank aims to stabilize inflation at 2% over the medium term, but the current high level of uncertainty makes it difficult to predict future monetary policy decisions. The ECB Governing Council will continue to assess incoming data and make decisions meeting by meeting based on the latest information. This flexible approach allows for adjustments in response to changing economic conditions, including factors like the tariff dispute and fiscal policies. The Council will use updated data and forecasts in June to align monetary policy with the goal of maintaining price stability. Our goal is clear: we aim to achieve a 2% inflation rate and maintain it sustainably as a stable anchor for inflation expectations. Anchored inflation expectations facilitate the task of monetary policymakers in steering inflation back to the target level following unexpected events. The successes in combating high inflation rates in the recent past were achieved at a low economic cost, partly due to better anchored inflation expectations. However, with changing circumstances, vigilance is required to monitor the evolution of inflation expectations, especially given recent increases in medium-term inflation expectations among euro area households and firms.
Ensuring firmly anchored inflation expectations is an ongoing task for monetary policymakers, necessitating a highly credible commitment to stability and clear communication. To enhance clarity, we have introduced AI-assisted text analysis methods to evaluate monetary policy texts. This allows us to assess the impact of our communication and avoid triggering undesirable market reactions or creating additional uncertainty.
In conclusion, it is essential to maintain clarity and transparency in monetary policy communication to anchor inflation expectations effectively. This requires continuous effort and vigilance to adapt to changing circumstances and ensure stability in the economy. Please rewrite this sentence. Please provide an alternative version.
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