Note: The following text is the delivery of the speech.
1 Introduction
Ladies and gentlemen,
Two hundred and fifty years ago this month, the “Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” was published. In this groundbreaking work, Adam Smith stresses the importance of the division of labour to increase productivity.
He cites the famous example of a pin factory where ten persons, by specialising in different tasks, could produce 48,000 pins a day. Each worker alone could have produced, at the very most, a few pins per day.
Smith advocated the division of labour both between individuals and between nations. The idea that all the countries involved win through specialisation and trade has been exceptionally fruitful.
In 1817, David Ricardo developed his theory of “comparative advantage” as opposed to “absolute advantage”.
Absolute advantage means a country can make a good with fewer resources or at lower cost than another country. Comparative advantage means it sacrifices less of other goods when producing that good. Opportunity costs matter, not absolute costs.
Ricardo believed that countries should specialise in the production of goods they can make at lower relative costs – and trade with others.
He gave the example of wine and cloth in England and Portugal: Assume Portugal produces both wine and cloth more efficiently than England. Assume also that Portugal has a greater efficiency advantage in wine production. Then, both countries are better off if Portugal specialises in wine production and England in the production of cloth.
By focusing on individual strengths, they can produce more efficiently. They need not be the most efficient producers of those goods. And even if one country is more efficient at producing everything, trade can still benefit all parties.
Now let’s leap forward to the nineteen nineties.
Following the fall of the Berlin Wall and China’s accession to the World Trade Organization, far more countries started participating in international trade. In particular, emerging market economies were playing an increasing role in the international division of labour.
This process of strong globalisation has increased global competition and given consumers in advanced economies access to cheaper goods and a greater range of products.
Where do we stand today, in times of geopolitical conflicts? To answer that, we have to talk about geoeconomic fragmentation and uncertainty.
What are the implications of the new global environment? I will focus on those for the economy, inflation, financial stability and monetary policy. Finally, I will discuss how Europe can meet the current challenges and why we need a European central bank digital currency.
2 Geoeconomic fragmentation and global uncertainty
The International Monetary Fund defines geoeconomic fragmentation broadly, namely as a policy-driven reversal of integration that is often guided by strategic considerations.[1]
It generally makes no sense to forego the advantages of an international division of labour. Such policies reduce global prosperity.
However, the COVID–19 pandemic, a stronger political influence on the Chinese economy and Russia’s war in Ukraine have shown that it is important to reduce economic dependencies.
The old axiom still holds: Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.
Diversification reduces risks, which also applies to suppliers. Homeshoring, nearshoring or friendshoring may therefore appear useful when realigning supply chains.[2]
Ladies and gentlemen,
You are probably familiar with such considerations in your business: How can robust supply chains be designed without sacrificing too many efficiency gains?
Since the new US administration took over, the global environment has again changed massively. Geoeconomic considerations as well as protectionist measures are playing an increasingly important role. The global trade order has been shaken by the tectonic shift in US trade policy.
International cooperation is suffering. In connection with this, geoeconomic risks as well as uncertainty are very high.[3]
Given the difficult circumstances around the globe, let me turn to how the Bundesbank sees the economic situation in Germany.
3 Economy, inflation and financial stability
We forecast that the German economy will grow by about 0.6 % this year and by an even stronger 1.3 % next year (on a calendar-adjusted basis). Unadjusted growth rates will be somewhat higher at 0.9 % for 2026 and 1.4 % for 2027 due to more working days.
This is good news, even though such growth rates are a far cry from rates observed a decade ago: in 2016 and 2017, GDP grew at 2.2 % and 2.7 %, respectively.
The recovery is being driven largely by additional government spending on defence and infrastructure. These are estimated to contribute 1.3 percentage points to economic growth by 2028.
Private demand is also likely to pick up momentum slowly. The euro area economy has proven more resilient than expected over the past year – despite the appreciation of the euro.
In December, the Eurosystem staff revised its projections a bit upwards, with the euro area economy forecasted to expand by 1.2 % this year and by 1.4 % in 2027 (calendar-adjusted).
Inflation developments are favourable. They remain consistent with our medium-term target of 2 %. According to the December projections for the euro area, there will be a temporary slight undershooting of the 2 % mark this year and next.
For 2028, the Eurosystem staff expects a point landing at 2 %. This outlook is, of course, also highly uncertain.
As if this trite saying needed confirmation, ten days ago the US Supreme Court struck down most of the tariffs imposed by the US President. In addition, trade policy conflicts and persistent geopolitical tensions have increased the risks to financial stability.
In Germany, structural challenges are weighing on the economy, too, and could impair financial stability. Risks from German banks’ lending business are on the rise. Although banks’ capitalisation is sound overall, their resilience should not be overestimated in the current environment.
The January discussions on Greenland at Davos have highlighted the potential for escalation. International financial markets are at risk due to high valuations, low risk premia, and potential amplification effects. Geopolitical tensions and fiscal vulnerabilities in some countries could lead to a sudden loss of confidence among market participants.
There are doubts about the safe-haven status of the US dollar, leading to its current weakness. This trend is expected to continue as international investors’ confidence wanes.
The euro’s appreciation against the US dollar since last year has implications for growth and inflation in the euro area, affecting monetary policy decisions.
In response to the uncertain environment, the European Central Bank maintains a flexible and data-driven approach to monetary policy, ready to adjust as needed.
Europe faces challenges in the changed world, necessitating a defense of its values and a move towards economic independence, particularly in defense capabilities and critical industries.
Efforts to enhance European integration, especially in the internal market and financial sector, are crucial to realizing the region’s full potential.
The establishment of a Savings and Investment Union can improve access to capital for businesses and individuals, boosting productivity and growth in Europe.
Considering the importance of payments, Europe should consider issuing a central bank digital currency to promote financial integration and reduce dependency on non-European providers in the digital payment sector. It is time for the introduction of a digital European payment solution. As a digital alternative to cash, the digital euro could be utilized by all citizens for electronic transactions in stores, online, or between individuals without any fees. A two-pronged strategy is recommended: the digital euro as a fundamental public offering in European payments, alongside innovative private solutions that can leverage its infrastructure for a fee. The implementation of the digital euro should aim for complementarity with private money to ensure resilience in Europe’s financial landscape. The legislative process at the European level should ideally be finalized by 2026 to make the digital euro a reality by 2029.
Furthermore, alongside the retail version of central bank digital currency – the digital euro, the Eurosystem is also developing a wholesale variant for settling large-value payments between financial institutions using new technologies. Financial market participants have shown keen interest in this, prompting the Eurosystem to announce a pilot solution by the end of 2026, enabling DLT platforms to connect to TARGET Services.
Both the digital euro and the wholesale variant of central bank digital currency are crucial components for a robust and sovereign European payment system. Additionally, stablecoins have emerged as a pressing issue, with the majority pegged to the US dollar. The widespread use of US dollar-denominated stablecoins in Europe could pose a threat to payment sovereignty and financial stability.
In conclusion, drawing from historical wisdom and leveraging modern technological advancements, we must work towards building thriving societies in a strong Europe that values international cooperation while standing on its own feet. Thank you for your attention. Assuming that Portugal has a greater efficiency advantage in wine production, it is beneficial for both countries if Portugal specializes in wine production and England in the production of cloth. By focusing on their individual strengths, they can produce more efficiently, even if one country is more efficient at producing everything. Trade can still benefit all parties.
Moving forward to the nineteen nineties, after the fall of the Berlin Wall and China’s accession to the World Trade Organization, more countries began participating in international trade. Emerging market economies played a larger role in the global division of labor, leading to increased global competition and providing consumers in advanced economies with access to cheaper goods and a wider range of products.
In today’s times of geopolitical conflicts, geoeconomic fragmentation and uncertainty are prevalent. The International Monetary Fund defines geoeconomic fragmentation as a policy-driven reversal of integration, which often reduces global prosperity. While an international division of labor is advantageous, recent events such as the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical tensions have highlighted the importance of reducing economic dependencies.
The global environment has seen significant changes with the new US administration and increasing protectionist measures. International cooperation is suffering, leading to high geoeconomic risks and uncertainty. Diversification of supply chains, through practices like homeshoring or nearshoring, can help mitigate risks in this challenging global landscape.
The German economy is forecasted to grow by about 0.6% this year and 1.3% next year, driven by additional government spending on defense and infrastructure. Inflation remains consistent with the medium-term target of 2%, with the Eurosystem staff projecting a temporary undershooting of this target in the coming years. Risks to financial stability from trade policy conflicts and geopolitical tensions are a concern, especially in light of recent events like the US Supreme Court striking down tariffs.
Monetary policy remains flexible and data-driven, with the Eurosystem ready to adjust its stance as necessary. The current level of key interest rates is considered favorable, but uncertainties in the global environment necessitate keeping options open. Geoeconomic risks and high uncertainty underline the importance of a cautious approach to monetary policy in the current economic climate. Since President Trump assumed office, the trade policy environment has been unstable. Following the Supreme Court’s ruling that country-specific tariffs were illegal, President Trump increased tariffs globally by 10 percentage points. This change will result in a decrease of about 4 percentage points in the effective tariff rate for Germany. The impact on economic growth and inflation is expected to be limited, but the uncertainty remains regarding the future of tariffs and geopolitical risks. Our monetary policy strategy is designed to navigate through this uncertain environment.
To address the challenges in the current world, Europe must uphold its values and principles of international trade. Strengthening defense capabilities and critical industries, such as satellite technology and navigation systems, is crucial for Europe’s independence. Enhancing integration in the internal market, particularly in the financial sector, is essential to unlock its full potential. The establishment of a Savings and Investment Union will facilitate better access to capital for businesses and promote economic growth.
Furthermore, Europe should strive for greater independence in payments by considering the issuance of a central bank digital currency (CBDC). This move could enhance financial integration and reduce dependence on non-European digital payment providers. Implementing a digital euro as a form of electronic payment for all citizens can provide a secure and autonomous payment solution. The two-pillar approach of a digital euro as a public offering alongside innovative private solutions can create a resilient payment system in Europe. It is crucial for the legislative process at the European level to be completed by 2026 to ensure the digital euro becomes a reality by 2029. Additionally, the Eurosystem is exploring a wholesale variant of CBDC to facilitate large-value critical payments between financial institutions. Financial market participants have shown great interest in these developments. Dentro de este marco, el Eurosystem ha anunciado que proporcionará una solución piloto para fines de 2026. Esto permitirá que las plataformas de tecnología de registros distribuidos (DLT) se conecten a nuestros servicios TARGET.
El euro digital y la variante mayorista de la moneda digital del banco central son elementos importantes para un paisaje de pagos europeo resiliente y soberano.
Un tema muy actual en este contexto son las stablecoins. Estos son activos criptográficos diseñados para mantener un valor estable en relación con monedas como el dólar estadounidense o el euro, respaldados por activos como bonos gubernamentales con este propósito. En la actualidad, el 99% del mercado de stablecoins está vinculado al dólar estadounidense.
Hasta ahora, las stablecoins han desempeñado un papel limitado, pero su volumen está creciendo, en parte porque la regulación en los Estados Unidos tiene como objetivo fortalecer la dominancia del dólar estadounidense y la demanda de bonos del gobierno de los Estados Unidos a través de las stablecoins. El uso generalizado de stablecoins denominadas en dólares estadounidenses en Europa podría poner en peligro nuestra soberanía en pagos y estabilidad financiera.
En conclusión, 250 años después de la publicación de «La Riqueza de las Naciones» y la introducción comercial de la primera máquina de vapor eficiente de James Watt, estamos presenciando una reacción en contra de la división internacional del trabajo y los beneficios del comercio internacional.
También estamos presenciando la revolución de la inteligencia artificial, que podría volverse tan influyente como lo fue la máquina de vapor en su época.
Tomemos la sabiduría del pasado y las oportunidades tecnológicas del presente para hacer lo que está en nuestras manos por sociedades prósperas en una Europa fuerte que continúe defendiendo la cooperación internacional, pero esté lista para mantenerse por sí misma.
Gracias por su atención. Emerging market economies are increasingly participating in the global division of labor, contributing to greater competition and providing consumers in advanced economies with access to more affordable goods and a wider range of products. In the current geopolitical landscape, geoeconomic fragmentation and uncertainty are key factors to consider. This shift has implications for the economy, inflation, financial stability, and monetary policy. It is essential for Europe to address these challenges and consider the implementation of a European central bank digital currency. Geoeconomic fragmentation, driven by policy decisions and strategic considerations, poses a risk to global prosperity. While an international division of labor is advantageous, recent events such as the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical conflicts highlight the importance of reducing economic dependencies. Diversifying supply chains through homeshoring, nearshoring, or friendshoring can mitigate risks and enhance resilience. The evolving global environment, influenced by geoeconomic factors and protectionist measures, has increased uncertainty and risks. The Bundesbank’s economic outlook for Germany indicates modest growth, driven by government spending and private demand. Inflation remains in line with targets, but risks to financial stability persist, especially considering geopolitical tensions and trade conflicts. Monetary policy remains flexible and data-driven, with the potential for adjustments as needed. Despite uncertainty, keeping policy options open is crucial, particularly in the face of volatile trade policies and geopolitical shifts. The uncertainty of tariffs and geopolitical risks looms over the next 150 days. Our monetary policy strategy is designed to navigate this uncertain environment. Europe must defend its values and strive for independence in defense capabilities and critical industries. Enhancing integration in the internal market is crucial to unlock its full potential, especially in the financial market. The Savings and Investment Union is a solution to connect European savings with business investment. Moving towards a central bank digital currency (CBDC) could enhance financial integration and reduce dependence on non-European providers in digital payment systems. The digital euro could provide a European alternative to current payment systems, ensuring autonomy and reducing costs. The implementation of the digital euro should complement private-sector solutions and promote resilience in Europe. The Eurosystem is also working on a wholesale variant of the digital euro for large-value critical payments between financial institutions. The Eurosystem has announced its plan to provide a pilot solution by the end of 2026, allowing DLT platforms to be connected to TARGET Services. This move is crucial for building a resilient and sovereign European payment landscape. Additionally, the issue of stablecoins, which are designed to maintain a stable value relative to currencies like the US dollar or the euro, poses a threat to European sovereignty in payments and financial stability. It is essential to address these challenges to ensure a strong Europe that upholds international cooperation while standing on its own two feet. Please rewrite this sentence. Please rewrite this sentence for me. Please rewrite this sentence.
QUELLEN
