Please note that the following remarks are based on the delivered speech.
1 Introductory remarks
Ladies and gentlemen,
Your membership of the Harvard Club is an expression of your ties to Harvard University.
I myself have visited Harvard a number of times and have given lectures there. So I can certainly understand your enthusiasm for the institution. Its academic excellence, cosmopolitan atmosphere and the inspiring culture of debate have impressed me every time.
2 Negative impact of US policy
All the more shocking did I find the US administration’s crackdown on the university. Research funding was cancelled, and foreign students had their visas revoked. The government evidently wanted to make an example of the university.
If such measures stand up in court, they jeopardise academic freedom and the liberty of teaching. And they could damage the reputation of one of the world’s most prestigious higher education institutions.
There are worrying trends emerging elsewhere in the United States, too. As President of the Bundesbank, I am particularly concerned about the treatment currently being meted out to the US Federal Reserve: the discrediting and defamation of the Fed’s leadership, the unabashed challenges to its independence.
I have a great deal of respect for the way in which Jay Powell is handling the verbal attacks – how he is focusing on his job and fulfilling his mandate.
If the Fed’s independence were to be politically undermined in a lasting way, it would have grave repercussions. It would jeopardise US economic and financial stability and endanger the country’s prosperity.
But it could also tempt short-sighted politicians in other countries to put pressure on their independent central banks, badgering them to lower interest rates more sharply than a stability-oriented mindset would consider advisable. For instance, in response to a cyclical flash in the pan or to provide fiscal relief for a state heavily in debt.
Anyone familiar with the capital market knows, of course, that the policy rate is just one factor among many that influences long-term interest rate levels. Inflation expectations also play a role. And when inflation expectations rise, risk premia lead to higher capital market rates.
Policy rate cuts do not, in and of themselves, automatically entail fiscal relief. In fact, the opposite is sometimes true. Indeed, there were signs that attacks on the Fed may have contributed to a steepening of the US yield curve on corresponding trading days: lower yields at the short end and higher yields at the long end. This shows that financial markets are fully cognisant of the importance of central bank independence.
A clear mandate for stable prices and the ability to go about this task in an independent manner: these are the prerequisites for us, as central banks, to be able to credibly and successfully combat inflation.[1]
Another area in which the US administration is straying from the path of stability and reliability that it has trodden to date is in trade policy. By doing so, it is not only harming its trading partners – people in the United States are also going to feel the consequences. Because tariffs and other trade restrictions reduce prosperity across the board.
When the European Union reached a deal with the US administration in July, the talk was of two major benefits. First, it means that we’re spared a trade war where both sides seek to outdo each other with countermeasures. Second, the agreement around tariffs was supposed to have eased uncertainty. Exporters, so it was said, would now know where they stand.
That only applies, of course, so long as the US administration considers itself bound by the agreement. Recent threats and restrictions raise doubts as to whether the agreement will hold up for long.
But even if it lasts, US tariffs will weigh on European exporters. German firms, in particular, will suffer.
But buyers of European goods in the United States will suffer as well. The average US tariff on EU goods is likely to increase tenfold, from 1.5 % under the previous administration to around 15 %. At more than 16 %, US tariff rates vis-à-vis all trading partners are now at their highest level since the 1930s.
3 Current monetary policy
Who ultimately bears the burden of tariffs will become clear over time. That’s not up to the government, but the markets.
The fact that consumers in the United States are feeling the effects of tariffs in the shape of higher prices is undisputed, though. And costs are on the rise for firms that use European goods as inputs, too. It is not yet clear how much this is stoking inflation.
However, falling sales and narrowing margins are also weighing on exporters in Europe. They are not going to be able to sell the same quantities at the same price.
This will continue to weigh on the already weak growth in the euro area and Germany, albeit not as heavily as the tariffs that were originally threatened would have done. Overall, GDP losses are likely to remain modest.
At the beginning of the year, front-loading in anticipation of higher tariffs had given a boost to economic activity. The euro area economy has since returned to a more moderate growth path.
The ECB staff macroeconomic projections published last week are somewhat more optimistic for the current year than they were in June. ECB staff now expect economic growth of 1.2 % instead of the 0.9 % previously projected. Looking ahead to the next two years, they are anticipating growth of 1.0 % and 1.3 %.
Nevertheless, the uncertainty surrounding US trade policy will continue to impact assessments. The effects of US tariffs on growth are uncertain, and their impact on prices in the euro area is not clear. In fact, tariffs could potentially have a slight dampening effect on inflation through their influence on the exchange rate.
Despite expectations of an appreciation of the US dollar due to tariffs, the dollar has actually depreciated significantly against the euro. This depreciation reflects doubts about the greenback’s status as a safe haven.
The increased value of the euro against the US dollar is leading to lower import prices in the euro area, including at petrol stations due to the global trading of crude oil in US dollars.
The European Central Bank’s inflation outlook remains consistent with the medium-term target of 2%, with projected inflation rates of 2.1% for this year and 1.7% and 1.9% for 2026 and 2027, respectively. Given this outlook, the ECB’s decision to keep policy rates unchanged was deemed appropriate.
Amidst prevailing uncertainties, a cautious approach is advised, and the current monetary policy stance positions us well to respond to unexpected changes. A study by the ifo Institute found that bureaucracy has cost the German economy up to €146 billion per year. Many firms see bureaucracy as a hindrance to investment. Additionally, there is increasing competitive pressure from China as Germany’s export industry loses market share to China due to its continued improvement in competitiveness.
Germany’s export goods mix, which has been successful for decades, has also contributed to the decline in market share. Many German firms specialize in products with declining global demand, such as the automotive and aerospace industries. Urgent action is needed to address these challenges, with a focus on developing competitive products and implementing effective measures to boost competitiveness.
Efforts to improve supply conditions in Germany include reducing bureaucracy, promoting skilled worker immigration, creating incentives for work and investment, and enhancing the efficiency of the energy transition. The goal is to make the German export industry more competitive and reduce dependency on exports for growth. Strengthening European integration and pursuing free trade agreements are also key strategies for enhancing competitiveness.
Europe’s strengths, such as the rule of law, reliability, and academic freedom, make it an attractive investment destination. Closer cooperation and resilience-building within Europe are essential for future success. By working together and responding effectively to crises, Europe can emerge stronger and more competitive on the global stage. Farvaque (2025), Führen Zentralbankreformen zu mehr Geldpolitikdisziplin?, EZB Arbeitspapier Nr. 3049.
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1 Einführende Bemerkungen
Damen und Herren,
Ihre Mitgliedschaft im Harvard Club ist Ausdruck Ihrer Verbindung zur Harvard University.
Ich selbst habe Harvard schon mehrmals besucht und dort Vorlesungen gehalten. Ich kann daher Ihre Begeisterung für die Einrichtung sicherlich nachvollziehen. Ihre akademische Exzellenz, die kosmopolitische Atmosphäre und die inspirierende Debattenkultur haben mich jedes Mal beeindruckt.
2 Negative Auswirkungen der US-Politik
Umso schockierender fand ich das Vorgehen der US-Regierung gegenüber der Universität. Forschungsmittel wurden gestrichen und ausländischen Studenten wurden die Visa entzogen. Die Regierung wollte offensichtlich ein Exempel an der Universität statuieren.
Wenn solche Maßnahmen vor Gericht bestehen, gefährden sie die akademische Freiheit und die Lehrfreiheit. Und sie könnten den Ruf einer der weltweit renommiertesten Hochschulen schädigen.
Auch anderswo in den Vereinigten Staaten zeigen sich besorgniserregende Trends. Als Präsident der Bundesbank beunruhigt mich besonders die Behandlung, die derzeit der Federal Reserve der USA widerfährt: die Diskreditierung und Verleumdung der Führung der Fed, die unverhohlenen Herausforderungen ihrer Unabhängigkeit.
Ich habe großen Respekt davor, wie Jay Powell mit den verbalen Angriffen umgeht – wie er sich auf seine Arbeit konzentriert und seinen Auftrag erfüllt.
Wenn die Unabhängigkeit der Fed auf politischem Wege nachhaltig untergraben würde, hätte das schwerwiegende Folgen. Es würde die wirtschaftliche und finanzielle Stabilität der USA gefährden und den Wohlstand des Landes bedrohen.
Aber es könnte auch kurzfristig den Versuchungen politischer Kurzsichtigkeit in anderen Ländern nachgeben, ihren unabhängigen Zentralbanken Druck zu machen, sie zu Zinssenkungen zu drängen, die über das hinausgehen, was eine stabilitätsorientierte Denkweise für ratsam hält. Zum Beispiel als Reaktion auf einen konjunkturellen Strohfeuer oder um einem stark verschuldeten Staat fiskalische Erleichterungen zu verschaffen.
Jeder, der mit dem Kapitalmarkt vertraut ist, weiß natürlich, dass der Leitzins nur einer von vielen Faktoren ist, die langfristige Zinsniveaus beeinflussen. Auch die Inflationserwartungen spielen eine Rolle. Und wenn die Inflationserwartungen steigen, führen Risikoprämien zu höheren Kapitalmarktzinsen.
Zinssenkungen bedeuten nicht automatisch fiskalische Erleichterungen. Tatsächlich ist manchmal das Gegenteil der Fall. Tatsächlich gab es Anzeichen dafür, dass Angriffe auf die Fed zu einem Anstieg der Zinskurve der USA an entsprechenden Handelstagen beigetragen haben: niedrigere Renditen am kurzen Ende und höhere Renditen am langen Ende. Dies zeigt, dass die Finanzmärkte sich der Bedeutung der Unabhängigkeit der Zentralbank voll bewusst sind.
Ein klarer Auftrag für stabile Preise und die Möglichkeit, dieser Aufgabe unabhängig nachzugehen: das sind die Voraussetzungen dafür, dass wir als Zentralbanken die Inflation glaubwürdig und erfolgreich bekämpfen können.[1]
Ein weiterer Bereich, in dem die US-Regierung von dem Pfad der Stabilität und Verlässlichkeit abweicht, den sie bislang eingeschlagen hat, ist die Handelspolitik. Damit schadet sie nicht nur ihren Handelspartnern – auch die Menschen in den Vereinigten Staaten werden die Folgen zu spüren bekommen. Denn Zölle und andere Handelsbeschränkungen verringern den Wohlstand insgesamt.
Als die Europäische Union im Juli eine Einigung mit der US-Regierung erzielte, war die Rede von zwei großen Vorteilen. Erstens bedeutet dies, dass wir einen Handelskrieg vermeiden, bei dem beide Seiten versuchen, sich gegenseitig mit Gegenmaßnahmen zu überbieten. Zweitens sollte die Einigung über Zölle die Unsicherheit verringern. Exporteure, so hieß es, würden nun wissen, woran sie sind.
Das gilt natürlich nur, solange sich die US-Regierung an die Vereinbarung gebunden fühlt. Aktuelle Drohungen und Beschränkungen lassen Zweifel aufkommen, ob die Vereinbarung lange Bestand haben wird.
Aber selbst wenn sie hält, werden US-Zölle auf europäische Exporteure lasten. Deutsche Unternehmen werden besonders darunter leiden.
Aber auch Käufer von europäischen Waren in den Vereinigten Staaten werden leiden. Der durchschnittliche US-Zollsatz für EU-Waren wird wahrscheinlich um das Zehnfache steigen, von 1,5 % unter der vorherigen Regierung auf etwa 15 %. Mit mehr als 16 % liegen die US-Zollsätze gegenüber allen Handelspartnern jetzt auf dem höchsten Stand seit den 1930er Jahren.
3 Aktuelle Geldpolitik
Wer letztendlich die Last der Zölle trägt, wird sich im Laufe der Zeit zeigen. Das liegt nicht in der Hand der Regierung, sondern der Märkte.
Unbestritten ist, dass Verbraucher in den Vereinigten Staaten die Auswirkungen von Zöllen in Form höherer Preise spüren. Und auch die Kosten für Unternehmen, die europäische Waren als Inputs verwenden, steigen.
The impact on inflation remains uncertain at this point. However, exporters in Europe are facing challenges due to falling sales and shrinking margins. This is expected to continue to hinder growth in the euro area and Germany, although not as severely as initially feared. Despite this, GDP losses are expected to be minimal. The European Central Bank’s latest projections show a slightly more optimistic outlook for economic growth this year, with the impact of US trade policy still causing some uncertainty.
The effects of US tariffs on growth are clearer than their impact on prices in the euro area. In fact, tariffs may even have a slight deflationary effect on inflation due to their influence on the exchange rate. Despite expectations of higher import prices, the dollar has actually depreciated against the euro, reflecting doubts about its safe-haven status.
The euro’s increased value against the dollar is leading to lower import prices in the euro area, including at the petrol station. The ECB staff’s inflation forecast remains aligned with their 2% target, with average inflation rates expected to be 2.1% this year and around 1.7-1.9% in the following years. Given the inflation outlook, the ECB’s decision to maintain unchanged policy rates is considered appropriate.
It is crucial to remain cautious in the face of uncertainties, with a data-driven approach proving effective in decision-making. The current monetary policy stance allows flexibility to respond to unexpected developments. The discussion around tariffs has impacted Germany’s export industry, with factors beyond recent trade conflicts contributing to weak exports. The slowdown in market growth and diminishing global market share have led to a decline in Germany’s export competitiveness since 2017. Supply-side effects, such as decreased competitiveness, are primarily responsible for this decline. High energy prices in Germany are also putting strain on energy-intensive sectors like chemicals and metals. While energy prices have increased in other countries due to Russia’s attack on Ukraine, the scale of these increases is not comparable. Another unique event in recent years was the disruptions in the supply chain during the COVID-19 pandemic, which had a greater impact on German industrial firms. This underscored the risks of unilateral dependencies and revealed fundamental structural issues in the German economy.
These structural problems, including a shortage of skilled workers, rising labor costs, high taxes, and excessive bureaucracy, have hindered competitiveness in key sectors like machinery and electrical industries. The growing competitive pressure from China has also contributed to the loss of market share for German export industries.
To address these challenges, urgent action is needed to enhance competitiveness and resilience in the German economy. This includes reducing bureaucracy, attracting skilled workers, creating incentives for investment, and improving the efficiency of the energy transition. The government has already initiated some measures, such as the «investment booster» and reduction in electricity tax, but more reforms are necessary to stimulate growth and increase investment.
The goal is to make the German export industry more competitive while also boosting domestic dynamics to reduce reliance on exports. Leveraging Germany’s strengths, such as skilled labor and innovation, and deepening European integration can help achieve sustainable growth. Europe should seize the opportunity to advance the single market and pursue free trade agreements to enhance competitiveness on the global stage. Europa es un socio fiable basado en valores y respeta la libertad académica. Con un banco central cuya independencia no está en peligro ni desafiada y con 450 millones de habitantes, la UE es el mercado único más grande del mundo. Europa debe trabajar más estrechamente y volverse más resiliente.
Uno de los padres fundadores del proyecto europeo, Jean Monnet, acuñó la frase: «Europa será forjada en crisis y como la suma de las soluciones adoptadas para esas crisis». Eso sigue siendo cierto hoy en día. Y estoy seguro de que la «suma de las soluciones» puede ser buena.
El impacto negativo de la política de EE. UU. es preocupante. La represión de la administración de EE. UU. a la universidad, cancelando la financiación de la investigación y revocando las visas de los estudiantes extranjeros, pone en peligro la libertad académica y la libertad de enseñanza. Además, podría dañar la reputación de una de las instituciones de educación superior más prestigiosas del mundo.
Preocupa también el trato que recibe actualmente la Reserva Federal de EE. UU.: la desacreditación y difamación de su liderazgo, y los desafíos a su independencia. Si la independencia de la Fed se socava políticamente de manera duradera, tendría graves repercusiones. Podría tentar a políticos de otros países a presionar a sus bancos centrales independientes para bajar las tasas de interés más drásticamente de lo aconsejable.
La política comercial de EE. UU. está desviándose del camino de estabilidad y confiabilidad que ha seguido hasta ahora. Las tarifas y otras restricciones comerciales reducen la prosperidad en general. Un acuerdo entre la Unión Europea y la administración de EE. UU. en julio aportó beneficios al evitar una guerra comercial y reducir la incertidumbre.
En resumen, Europa es un socio sólido basado en valores y respetuoso de la libertad académica. La independencia del banco central europeo es fundamental, y la UE destaca como el mayor mercado único del mundo. Es crucial que Europa trabaje en conjunto para fortalecer su resiliencia en tiempos de crisis. It was said that exporters would now have clarity on their standing. However, this assurance is only valid as long as the US administration continues to abide by the agreement. Recent threats and restrictions cast doubt on the sustainability of the agreement.
Even if the agreement holds, European exporters, especially German firms, will be impacted by US tariffs. The average US tariff on EU goods is expected to increase significantly, potentially reaching 15%. This surge in tariffs will also affect buyers of European goods in the United States.
The uncertainty surrounding US trade policy will continue to influence economic growth in the euro area. While the impact of US tariffs on growth is evident, the effects on inflation are less clear. The depreciation of the dollar against the euro may have a dampening effect on inflation in the euro area.
Despite the challenges posed by tariffs, the ECB staff remains cautiously optimistic about economic growth in the euro area. The current monetary policy stance allows flexibility to respond to unforeseen changes. The Governing Council of the ECB decided to keep policy rates unchanged in light of the prevailing uncertainties.
The slowdown in German exports cannot be solely attributed to recent events like the trade conflict or the COVID-19 pandemic. Market share losses in international trade have been observed since 2017. Understanding the reasons behind these losses is crucial for shaping economic policy moving forward. If German exports had kept pace with sales markets, the country’s economic growth between 2021 and 2024 would have been significantly higher. This is a significant amount, especially when considering that the German economy remained stagnant during this time period. Our experts have developed a new empirical approach to delve deeper into the reasons for the decline in export market shares. This approach allows us to differentiate between supply-side and demand-side factors, as well as examine key categories of goods and trading partners.
Supply-side effects reflect changes in a country’s competitiveness in specific economic sectors or markets. This allows for a detailed analysis and evaluation of international competitiveness. The key finding from the study is that the decrease in Germany’s export market shares since 2017 can be primarily attributed to a decline in competitiveness.
Approximately three-quarters of the decline since 2017, and an even larger portion since 2021, can be traced back to supply-side effects, indicating a decrease in competitiveness. Factors contributing to this include high energy prices in Germany, supply chain disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic, a shortage of skilled workers, rising labor costs, high taxes, bureaucratic hurdles, and increasing competitive pressure from China.
In addition to competitiveness, Germany’s export goods mix has also played a role in the loss of market share. Many German companies specialize in products that have experienced reduced demand globally, such as the automotive and aerospace industries.
It is clear that urgent action is required. Firms need to develop competitive products, while policymakers can implement measures to enhance competitiveness. This includes reducing bureaucracy, attracting skilled workers, incentivizing work, improving investment conditions, and strengthening the energy transition.
The new Federal Government has already taken some steps to improve supply conditions, but further reforms are needed. The aim should be to make the German export industry more competitive and reduce dependence on exports for growth. Leveraging Germany’s strengths, such as skilled workers and innovative capacity, is crucial. Additionally, deepening European integration can unlock economic potential and strengthen the European single market in response to challenges like US tariffs. It is high time to establish a savings and investments union in Europe to make it more appealing for both Europeans and non-Europeans to invest here. Former ECB President Mario Draghi put forth numerous proposals to enhance Europe’s competitiveness, and it is now our responsibility to implement these suggestions, as only a fraction of them have been realized so far.
Additionally, Europe should embrace other economic regions and pursue free trade agreements. The recent agreement between the EU and Mercosur countries is a significant step in this direction, and it is hoped that this agreement will be ratified soon. Europe’s advantages, such as its commitment to the rule of law, values-based partnerships, and academic freedom, are clear. With a population of 450 million, the EU represents the world’s largest single market.
Europe must now collaborate more closely and increase its resilience. As one of the founding fathers of the European project, Jean Monnet, famously said, «Europe will be forged in crises and as the sum of the solutions adopted for those crises.» This statement remains relevant today, and it is believed that the collective solutions can lead to positive outcomes. Can you please rewrite this sentence? Can you please rewrite this?
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