
Delivered speech.
1 Introduction
Ladies and gentlemen, I am delighted and honored to address such a distinguished audience here today.
Remember to look up at the stars and not down at your feet.
This advice comes from Stephen Hawking, the renowned English physicist and author of numerous books on the cosmos. And who would dare to contradict such a genius?
Today, I invite you to join me on a journey of stargazing. If you don’t have a telescope with you, don’t worry. However, I must warn you: gazing at the stars can lead to romantic moments for some, while for astronomers, it reveals stunning images. When economists discuss stars, things tend to get complex. So be prepared for an intriguing discussion!
I’m sure you’ve already guessed the topic of my speech: the natural rate of interest, also known as r-star. This concept has been a subject of interest for economists for over 125 years and has gained significant attention in the current era of monetary policy.
As a central banker, I aim to explore the role of r-star in the realm of monetary policy. I will structure my lecture around four key questions: What is r-star and why is it important for monetary policy? How have estimates of r-star evolved over time? What factors contribute to the uncertainty surrounding current estimates and the future trajectory of r-star? What implications should monetary policy draw from this?
2 Definition of r-star and its relevance for monetary policy
Let’s begin with the definition. The natural rate is the real interest rate that would exist if the economy were operating at its full potential with stable prices. R-star is believed to be influenced by real factors that impact the balance between saving and investment, such as technological advancements and demographics. It is assumed to be independent of monetary policy, as monetary measures only have temporary effects on real variables.
At first glance, the natural rate could serve as a guiding principle for monetary policy. If a central bank sets its policy rates above r-star, the policy is considered restrictive, leading to a slowdown in economic activity and lower inflation. Conversely, if the real rate is below r-star, the policy is expansionary, encouraging consumption and investment, resulting in higher economic activity and inflation.
However, using the natural rate as a guiding star for monetary policy poses significant challenges. While the name r-star may evoke celestial imagery, it is a theoretical concept and not directly observable. It must be estimated based on assumptions about the relationship between measurable variables and r-star.
Comparing r-star to a star in the sky is misleading; it is more like dark matter, invisible but inferred through its effects. Researchers have employed various estimation methods to understand the evolution of the natural rate.
3 Trends in r-star estimates over time
Since the 1980s, estimates have indicated a downward trend in r-star over several decades across advanced economies. Following the global financial crisis, estimates plummeted to exceptionally low levels, aligning with the observed decline in real interest rates of government bonds.
The decline in r-star can be attributed to factors such as diminishing productivity growth and an aging population, which have boosted saving and reduced investment.
Other factors like inequality, risk aversion, and fiscal policies also play a role in influencing saving and investment patterns.
Estimates for r-star reached their lowest levels during the pandemic years of 2020 and 2021, but there are indications of a partial rebound. Recent analyses suggest that r-star ranges from -½% to ½% in real terms and between 1¾% to 2¼% in nominal terms.
These estimates vary depending on the methods used for estimation.
Considering a broader range of measures, Bundesbank staff calculations using data up to the end of 2024 indicate a range of 1.8% to 2.5%. Additionally, the ECB found for the third quarter of 2024 a range of -0.5% to 1% for real r-star and 1.75% to 3% for nominal r-star. These estimates suggest an increase of approximately one percentage point from previous lows, with similar findings from economists at the Bank for International Settlements.
The reasons behind this increase post-pandemic are not fully understood. Factors such as high fiscal spending leading to rising public debt levels or increased capital needs in response to companies making their value chains more resilient could be contributing factors.
Uncertainties surrounding r-star estimates are significant, influenced by megatrends, methodology, and monetary policy. Megatrends such as climate change and digitalization can impact natural rates, while differing methodologies in estimating r-star can lead to varied results. Additionally, monetary policy itself may shape the natural rate or its estimates, with potential long-lasting effects on real interest rates.
In conclusion, the role of r-star in monetary policy is complex and uncertain. Policymakers must consider a range of factors beyond just r-star when making decisions, as the landscape is constantly evolving and influenced by various interconnected elements. The current relevant interest rate guiding monetary policy is 2.75%. After a series of interest rate cuts, consideration is being given to whether further cuts would be appropriate.
Staff have provided estimates of r-star ranging from 1.8% to 2.5% in nominal terms. If r-star is at the upper end of these estimates, the policy rate would become neutral with the next rate cut. However, if r-star is at the lower end, monetary policy would remain restrictive even after additional rate cuts.
Given the desired stance to achieve, caution is advised in relying solely on these estimates as they may have unintended effects on inflation. The uncertainty surrounding these estimates, along with potential asymmetries, highlights the need for a careful approach.
This decision-making scenario mirrors the upcoming monetary policy meeting of the ECB Governing Council in March. It is crucial to consider various indicators beyond r-star estimates to assess the current policy stance and determine the optimal path forward.
Taking a gradual and data-driven approach has been beneficial for the ECB Governing Council, especially in uncertain times. The use of r-star, along with other indicators, helps paint a comprehensive picture for decision-making.
Reviewing the monetary policy strategy periodically is essential to understanding the forces influencing real interest rate trends and ensuring price stability. While r-star is a valuable tool, it should not be the sole basis for decision-making.
In conclusion, incorporating r-star alongside other instruments in the monetary policy framework is essential for navigating the complex economic environment effectively. Just as astronomers explore dark matter, economists find value in studying r-star as part of their analytical toolkit. Mazelis (2025), Natürliche Zinssatzschätzungen für den Euroraum: Erkenntnisse, Unsicherheiten und Schwächen, EZB Wirtschaftsbulletin, 1/2025.
in german while maintaining its SEO structure and link types (dofollow or nofollow) exactly as they appear in
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1 Einführung
Damen und Herren, es ist mir eine Freude und eine Ehre, vor einem so illustren Publikum zu sprechen.
Denken Sie daran, zu den Sternen hinaufzublicken und nicht auf Ihre Füße hinunter.
Dies war der Rat von Stephen Hawking, dem berühmten englischen Physiker und Autor zahlreicher Bücher über das Universum. Und wer würde das Genie widersprechen wollen?
Heute lade ich Sie ein, mich auf eine Sternenbeobachtungstour zu begleiten. Wenn Sie kein Teleskop dabei haben, keine Sorge. Allerdings sollte ich hier einen Haftungsausschluss hinzufügen: Wenn sich ein Paar die Sterne ansieht, könnte es romantisch werden. Wenn Astronomen die Sterne beobachten, können beeindruckende Bilder in Sicht kommen. Wenn Ökonomen über Sterne sprechen, wird es normalerweise kompliziert. Jetzt wissen Sie, worauf Sie sich einlassen!
Ich bin sicher, Sie haben bereits erraten, welches Thema ich im Sinn habe: den natürlichen Zinssatz – auch bekannt als r-Stern. Es ist ein Konzept, mit dem sich Ökonomen seit mehr als 125 Jahren auseinandersetzen.[1] Und vielleicht hat es in der aktuellen Ära der Geldpolitik noch nie so viel Aufmerksamkeit erhalten.
Aus der Perspektive eines Zentralbankers möchte ich diskutieren, welche Rolle r-Stern im Geldpolitik-Universum spielen kann und sollte. Ich werde meinen Vortrag um vier Schlüsselfragen herum strukturieren: Was ist r-Stern und warum ist er für die Geldpolitik von Interesse? Wie haben sich die Schätzungen für r-Stern in den letzten Jahrzehnten entwickelt? Was führt zu Unsicherheiten über aktuelle Schätzungen und die zukünftige Entwicklung von r-Stern? Welche Schlussfolgerungen sollte die Geldpolitik daraus ziehen?
2 Definition von r-Stern und Verwendung für die Geldpolitik
Beginnen wir mit der Definition. Der natürliche Zinssatz ist der reale Zinssatz, der herrschen würde, wenn die Wirtschaft ihr Potenzial erreichen würde und die Preise stabil wären. R-Stern wird im Allgemeinen von realen Kräften beeinflusst, die das Gleichgewicht zwischen Sparen und Investieren strukturell beeinflussen. Denken Sie zum Beispiel an technologischen Fortschritt und demografische Faktoren. Dies bedeutet auch, dass r-Stern nach Definition unabhängig von der Geldpolitik sein sollte. Letzteres ergibt sich aus der weit verbreiteten Überzeugung, dass die Geldpolitik nur vorübergehend reale Variablen beeinflussen kann, aber langfristig neutral ist.
Auf den ersten Blick könnte der natürliche Zinssatz ein Leitstern für die Durchführung der Geldpolitik sein. Wenn eine Zentralbank ihre Leitzinsen so festlegt, dass der reale Zinssatz über r-Stern liegt, ist die Geldpolitik restriktiv oder «straff». Folglich verlangsamt sich die wirtschaftliche Aktivität und die Inflationsrate sollte abnehmen. Wenn der reale Zinssatz unter r-Stern liegt, ist die Geldpolitik expansiv oder «locker». Sie bietet Anreize für Verbraucher, mehr zu kaufen, und für Unternehmen, Investitionen und Produktion zu steigern. Dies sollte also zu mehr wirtschaftlicher Aktivität und einer höheren Inflationsrate führen.
Die Idee, dass der natürliche Zinssatz als Leitstern für die Geldpolitik dienen kann, birgt jedoch tiefgreifende Herausforderungen. Vielleicht ruft der Name r-Stern Assoziationen mit Astronomie und Navigation hervor. Aber diese wären irreführend. Wenn r-Stern wie ein Stern am Himmel wäre, wäre er relativ einfach zu lokalisieren. Sterne strahlen Licht aus und sind daher beobachtbar.
Der natürliche Zinssatz ist ein theoretisches Konzept. Er basiert auf einem hypothetischen Zustand der Welt. Das bedeutet, dass der natürliche Zinssatz von Natur aus nicht beobachtbar ist. Er kann nur geschätzt werden. Beispielsweise verwenden Modelle Annahmen über die Beziehung zwischen messbaren Variablen und r-Stern.
In contrast to a star shining brightly in the sky, the natural rate is more akin to dark matter – invisible yet inferred indirectly through its gravitational effects. When something is difficult to find, researchers are motivated to search even harder, whether they are astronomers or economists. This leads to a variety of estimation methods being used to track the evolution of the natural rate.
Estimates for the natural rate of interest, or r-star, have been pointing towards a downward trend since the 1980s across many advanced economies, especially after the global financial crisis. Factors such as waning productivity growth, population aging, inequality, risk aversion, and fiscal policy have all played a role in influencing saving and investment, thus impacting the natural rate.
While estimates for r-star hit their lowest points during the pandemic years of 2020 and 2021, there have been signs of a partial reversal since then. Various analyses have shown that the range of r-star estimates has increased by about one percentage point from its lows, with different models and data providing slightly different ranges.
However, uncertainties surrounding r-star estimates persist due to megatrends like climate change, ageing societies, digitalization, and geopolitical divisions, which can impact the natural rate in unpredictable ways. Methodological differences in estimating r-star also contribute to uncertainties, with varying approaches yielding different results.
In conclusion, the natural rate of interest remains a subject of uncertainty and ongoing research within the field of economics, with multiple factors and methodologies influencing its estimation. Returns on private capital have remained relatively stable in the US, Germany, and the euro area over the past few decades. Ricardo Reis emphasizes that focusing solely on government bond returns when determining r-star can lead to incorrect policy decisions. Additionally, the time horizon and methods used to estimate the real rate can impact policy advice accuracy.
Furthermore, monetary policy itself can influence the natural rate of interest, with studies suggesting that prolonged tight monetary policy can hinder investment and productivity growth, while persistent easing could lead to financial imbalances. Central bank announcements may also impact real interest rates, highlighting the interconnectedness of monetary policy and market perceptions.
In light of these uncertainties, the role of r-star in monetary policy decision-making is crucial but should not be the sole factor considered. It is essential to use a variety of indicators and take a gradual, data-driven approach to policy decisions. The Eurosystem utilizes r-star in model-based projections but acknowledges that a comprehensive assessment of the current economic environment is necessary for optimal policy outcomes. Sin embargo, las recomendaciones sobre la política monetaria real dependen de las fuerzas impulsoras: ¿se debe el nuevo entorno a una menor demanda de activos seguros y líquidos o a un aumento en la productividad? ¡Y tiene dos escenarios más en su papel!
Esto proporciona un buen ejemplo de por qué debemos analizar de cerca los factores detrás de las estimaciones de la tasa de interés real. Aquí es importante comprender aún mejor las fuerzas que están cambiando las tendencias de las tasas de interés reales. Necesitamos descubrir cómo estas fuerzas y tendencias afectan nuestro trabajo para garantizar la estabilidad de precios.
Revisar nuestra estrategia de política monetaria de vez en cuando es vital. Eso es precisamente lo que estamos haciendo en este momento en el Eurosystem. Y, por supuesto, en este proceso, examinamos todas las preguntas que mencioné sobre r-star.
Nuestro recorrido de observación de estrellas está llegando a su fin. Resulta que estábamos tratando más con materia oscura que con una estrella brillante. Así como la materia oscura es un campo emocionante para los astrónomos, r-star es un tema gratificante para los economistas.
Utilizar r-star solo para navegar en el universo de la política monetaria podría ser como volar casi a ciegas. Pero tenerlo como uno de los muchos instrumentos en su cabina es muy útil.
Me gustaría terminar citando nuevamente a Stephen Hawking: «Los mayores logros de la humanidad han surgido de hablar, y sus mayores fracasos por no hablar».
***Notas a pie de página:***
1. Wicksell, K. (1898), Geldzins und Güterpreise: eine Studie über die den Tauschwert des Geldes bestimmenden Ursachen, Jena, G. Fischer (versión en inglés como ibid. (1936), Interest and prices: a study of the causes regulating the value of money, London, Macmillan).
2. Obstfeld, M., Natural and Neutral Real Interest Rates: Past and Future, NBER Working Paper, No 31949, diciembre de 2023.
3. Brand, C., M. Bielecki and A. Penalver (2018), The natural rate of interest: estimates, drivers, and challenges to monetary policy, ECB Occasional Paper, No 217.
4. Cesa-Bianchi, A., R. Harrison and R. Sajedi (2023), Global R*, CEPR Discussion Paper No 18518; Davis, J., C. Fuenzalida, L. Huetsch, B. Mills and A. M. Taylor (2024), Global natural rates in the long run: Postwar macro trends and the market-implied r* in 10 advanced economies, Journal of International Economics, Vol. 149; Fondo Monetario Internacional (2023), The natural rate of interest: drivers and implications for policy, World Economic Outlook, abril, Capítulo 2.
5. Sobre el desarrollo del apetito por el riesgo en los mercados financieros, consulte Deutsche Bundesbank, Risk appetite in financial markets and monetary policy, Monthly Report, enero de 2025.
6. Brand, C., N. Lisack and F. Mazelis (2025), Natural rate estimates for the euro area: insights, uncertainties and shortcomings, ECB Economic Bulletin, 1/2025.
7. Modelos adicionales también proporcionarían valores fuera de este rango, pero actualmente no se consideran suficientemente robustos.
8. Benigno, G., B. Hofmann, G. Nuño and D. Sandri (2024), Quo vadis, r*? The natural rate of interest after the pandemic, BIS Quarterly Review, marzo.
9. Reis, R. (2025), The Four R-stars: From Interest Rates to Inflation and Back, borrador de documento de trabajo.
10. Wicksell, K. (1898), op. cit.
11. Caballero, R., E. Farhi and P.-O. Gourinchas (2017), Rents, Technical Change, and Risk Premia Accounting for Secular Trends in Interest Rates, Returns on Capital, Earning Yields, and Factor Shares, American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings 107(5), pp. 614‑620.
12. Deutsche Bundesbank, The natural rate of interest, Monthly Report, octubre de 2017.
13. Brand, C., M. Bielecki and A. Penalver (2018), The natural rate of interest: estimates, drivers, and challenges to monetary policy, ECB Occasional Paper, No 217.
14. Reis, R., Which r-star, public bonds or private investment? Measurement and policy implications, manuscrito inédito, septiembre de 2022.
15. Jordà, Ò., S. Singh and A. Taylor, The long-run effects of monetary policy, NBER Working Papers, No 26666, enero de 2020, revisado en septiembre de 2024; Benigno, G., B. Hofmann, G. Nuño and D. Sandri (2024), Quo vadis, r*? The natural rate of interest after the pandemic, BIS Quarterly Review, marzo.
16. Baqaee, D., E. Farhi and K. Sangani, The supply-side effects of monetary policy, NBER Working Paper, No 28345, enero de 2021, revisado en marzo de 2023; Ma, Y. and K. Zimmermann, Monetary Policy and Innovation, NBER Working Paper, No 31698, septiembre de 2023.
17. Borio, C., P. Disyatat, M. Juselius and P. Rungcharoenkitkul (2022), Why so low for so long? A long-term view of real interest rates, International Journal of Central Banking, Vol. 18, No 3.
18. Hillenbrand, S. (2025), The Fed and the Secular Decline in Interest Rates, The Review of Financial Studies, próximamente.
19. Williams, J. C. (2017), Comment on “Safety, Liquidity, and the Natural Rate of Interest”, by M. Del Negro, M. P. Giannoni, D. Giannone, and A. Tambalotti, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Vol. 1, pp. 235‑316; Rungcharoenkitkul, P. and F. Winkler, The natural rate of interest through a hall of mirrors, BIS Working Paper No 974, noviembre de 2021.
20. Williams, J. C., Remarks at the 42nd Annual Central Banking Seminar, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Nueva York, 1 de octubre de 2018.
21. Reis, R. (2025), op. cit.
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1 Introducción
Damas y caballeros, es un placer y un honor para mí hablar aquí ante una audiencia tan distinguida.
Recuerda mirar las estrellas y no bajar la vista a tus pies.
Este fue el consejo de Stephen Hawking, el famoso físico inglés y autor de numerosos libros sobre el cosmos. Y ¿quién querría contradecir al genio?
Así que hoy los invito a unirse a mí en un recorrido de observación de estrellas. If you don’t have a telescope handy, don’t worry. But beware, gazing at the stars with a loved one can turn romantic, while astronomers may see stunning images and economists might find things getting complicated. Now you know what you’re getting yourself into!
The topic at hand is the natural rate of interest, also known as r-star, a concept economists have been studying for over 125 years. This concept has gained significant attention in the current era of monetary policy.
As a central banker, I want to discuss the role of r-star in the world of monetary policy. I will address four key questions: What is r-star and why is it important for monetary policy? How have estimates for r-star changed over the years? What factors contribute to uncertainty in current estimates and future changes in r-star? And what implications should monetary policy draw from all this?
Let’s start with the definition. R-star is the real interest rate that would exist if the economy was at its full potential and prices were stable. It is influenced by real factors like technological progress and demographics, and should be independent of monetary policy in theory.
While the natural rate could guide monetary policy, it poses challenges as it is a theoretical concept that cannot be directly observed. Estimates for r-star have shown a downward trend over the years, with factors like productivity growth and population aging affecting saving and investment.
Recent studies suggest that waning productivity growth and population aging have led to increased saving and decreased investment. Other factors like inequality, risk aversion, and fiscal policy also play a role in shaping estimates for r-star.
Estimates for r-star reached their lowest point during the pandemic years of 2020 and 2021, but there are signs of a partial reversal. Various analyses suggest that r-star estimates currently range from -½% to ½% in real terms, and between 1¾% and 2¼% in nominal terms.
Overall, estimates for r-star have likely increased by about one percentage point from their lows, indicating a shift in the range of estimates. Economists from the Bank for International Settlements have recently released similar findings. The reasons behind the post-pandemic increase are not fully understood, but factors such as high fiscal spending, rising public debt levels, and the need for more resilient value chains and increased stock levels in companies may be contributing.
Uncertainties surround estimates of r-star, the natural rate of interest, due to various factors including megatrends like climate change, digitalization, and geopolitical divisions. Methodological differences in estimating r-star, such as using government bond yields instead of private capital returns, also contribute to uncertainties. Additionally, the impact of monetary policy on shaping r-star estimates is another reason for caution.
In conclusion, the role of r-star in monetary policy remains uncertain and policymakers must carefully consider various factors before making decisions. If r-star were at the lower end of the estimates, monetary policy would remain restrictive even after multiple rate cuts. This decision-making situation is similar to what the ECB Governing Council is facing in the euro area. The concept of r-star helps indicate when caution is needed in policy rate moves. However, relying solely on r-star estimates is risky, and a more comprehensive assessment is necessary to determine the optimal policy path. The Eurosystem uses various indicators, including r-star, in its decision-making process.
Taking a data-driven and gradual approach has been beneficial for the ECB Governing Council, especially in uncertain environments. It is essential to consider the factors influencing r-star estimates to understand how real interest rate trends impact price stability. Reviewing the monetary policy strategy periodically is crucial, and the Eurosystem is currently undergoing this process while considering all aspects of r-star.
While r-star is a valuable tool in monetary policy, it should not be the sole basis for decision-making. It is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing interest rates. Just as dark matter is intriguing for astronomers, r-star is a compelling topic for economists. Using r-star alongside other instruments in monetary policy is highly advantageous. Caballero, R., E. Farhi and P.-O. Gourinchas (2017), Rents, Technical Change, and Risk Premia Accounting for Secular Trends in Interest Rates, Returns on Capital, Earning Yields, and Factor Shares, American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings 107(5), pp. 614‑620.
Deutsche Bundesbank, The natural rate of interest, Monthly Report, October 2017.
Brand, C., M. Bielecki and A. Penalver (2018), The natural rate of interest: estimates, drivers, and challenges to monetary policy, ECB Occasional Paper, No 217.
Reis, R., Which r-star, public bonds or private investment? Measurement and policy implications, Unpublished manuscript, September 2022.
Jordà, Ò., S. Singh and A. Taylor, The long-run effects of monetary policy, NBER Working Papers, No 26666, January 2020, revised September 2024; Benigno, G., B. Hofmann, G. Nuño and D. Sandri (2024), Quo vadis, r*? The natural rate of interest after the pandemic, BIS Quarterly Review, March.
Baqaee, D., E. Farhi and K. Sangani, The supply-side effects of monetary policy, NBER Working Paper, No 28345, January 2021, revised March 2023; Ma, Y. and K. Zimmermann, Monetary Policy and Innovation, NBER Working Paper, No 31698, September 2023.
Borio, C., P. Disyatat, M. Juselius and P. Rungcharoenkitkul (2022), Why so low for so long? A long-term view of real interest rates, International Journal of Central Banking, Vol. 18, No 3.
Hillenbrand, S. (2025), The Fed and the Secular Decline in Interest Rates, The Review of Financial Studies, forthcoming.
Williams, J. C. (2017), Comment on “Safety, Liquidity, and the Natural Rate of Interest”, by M. Del Negro, M. P. Giannoni, D. Giannone, and A. Tambalotti, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Vol. 1, pp. 235‑316; Rungcharoenkitkul, P. and F. Winkler, The natural rate of interest through a hall of mirrors, BIS Working Paper No 974, November 2021.
Williams, J. C., Remarks at the 42nd Annual Central Banking Seminar, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, New York City, 1 October 2018.
Reis, R. (2025), op. cit. Please rewrite this sentence.
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